The Origins of the Domesticated Grapevine

Domesticated grapevine (Vitis vinifera, sometimes called V. sativa) was one of the most important fruit species in the classic Mediterranean world, and it is the most important economic fruit species in the modern world today. As in the ancient past, sun-loving grapevines are today cultivated to produce fruits, which are eaten fresh (as table grapes) or dried (as raisins), and, most especially, to make wine, a drink of great economic, cultural, and symbolic value. The Vitis family consists of about 60 inter-fertile species that exist almost exclusively in the Northern Hemisphere: of those, V. vinifera is the only one extensively used in the global wine industry. Approximately 10,000 cultivars of V. vinifera exist today, although the market for wine production is dominated by only a handful of them. Cultivars are typically classified according to whether they produce wine grapes, table grapes, or raisins. Domestication History Most evidence indicates that V. vinifera was domesticated in Neolithic southwest Asia between ~6000–8000 years ago, from its wild ancestor V. vinifera spp. sylvestris, sometimes referred to as V. sylvestris. V. sylvestris, while quite rare in some locations, currently ranges between the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Himalayas. A second possible center of domestication is in Italy and the western Mediterranean, but so far the evidence for that is not conclusive. DNA studies suggest that one reason for the lack of clarity is the frequent occurrence in the past of purposeful or accidental cross-breeding of domestic and wild grapes. The earliest evidence for wine production—in the form of chemical residues inside pots—is from Iran at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros mountains about 7400–7000 BP. Shulaveri-Gora in Georgia had residues dated to the 6th millennium BC. Seeds from what are believed to be domesticated grapes have been found in Areni Cave in southeastern Armenia, about 6000 BP, and Dikili Tash from northern Greece, 4450–4000 BCE. DNA from grape pips thought to be domesticated was recovered from Grotta della Serratura in southern Italy from levels dated to 4300–4000 cal BCE. In Sardinia, the earliest dated fragments come from the Late Bronze Age levels of the Nuragic culture settlement of Sa Osa, 1286–1115 cal BCE. Diffusion By about 5,000 years ago, grapevines were traded out to the western margin of the Fertile Crescent, the Jordan Valley, and Egypt. From there, the grape was spread throughout the Mediterranean basin by various Bronze Age and Classical societies. Recent genetic investigations suggest that at this distribution point, the domestic V. vinifera was crossed with local wild plants in the Mediterranean. According to the 1st century BCE Chinese historical record Shi Ji, grapevines found their way into East Asia in the late 2nd century BCE, when General Qian Zhang returned from the Fergana Basin of Uzbekistan between 138–119 BCE. Grapes were later brought to Changan (now Xian city) via the Silk Road. Archaeological evidence from the steppe society Yanghai Tombs indicates, however, that grapes were grown in the Turpan Basin (at the western edge of what is today China) by at least 300 BCE. The founding of Marseille (Massalia) about 600 BCE is thought to have been connected with grape cultivation, suggested by the presence of a large number of wine amphorae from its early days. There, Iron Age Celtic people bought large quantities of wine for feasting; but overall viticulture was slow-growing until, according to Pliny, retired members of the Roman legion moved to the Narbonnaisse region of France at the end of the 1st century BCE. These old soldiers grew grapes and mass-produced wine for their working colleagues and the urban lower classes. Differences Between Wild and Domestic Grapes The main difference between wild and domestic forms of grape is the wild forms ability to cross-pollinate: wild V. vinifera can self-pollinate, while domestic forms cannot, which allows farmers to control a plants genetic characteristics. The domestication process increased the size of bunches and berries, and the berrys sugar content as well. The end result was greater yields, more regular production, and better fermentation. Other elements, such as larger flowers and a wide range of berry colors—particularly white grapes—are believed to have been bred into the grape later in the Mediterranean region. None of these characteristics are identifiable archaeologically, of course: for that, we must rely on changes in grape seed (pips) size and shape and genetics. In general, wild grapes bear roundish pips with short stalks, while domestic varieties are more elongated, with long stalks. Researchers believe the change results from the fact that larger grapes have larger, more elongated pips. Some scholars suggest that when pip shape varies within a single context, that probably indicates viticulture in process. However, in general, using shape, size, and form is only successful if the seeds were not deformed by carbonization, water-logging, or mineralization. All of those processes are what allows grape pits to survive in archaeological contexts. Some computer visualization techniques have been used to examine pip shape, techniques which hold promise to resolve this issue. DNA Investigations and Specific Wines So far, DNA analysis doesnt really help either. It supports the existence of one and possibly two original domestication events, but so many deliberate crossings since then have blurred researchers ability to identify the origins. What does seem apparent is that cultivars were shared across wide distances, along with multiple events of vegetative propagation of specific genotypes throughout the wine-making world. Speculation is rampant in the non-scientific world about the origins of specific wines: but so far scientific support of those suggestions is rare. A few that are supported include the Mission cultivar in South America, which was introduced into South America by Spanish missionaries as seeds. Chardonnay is likely to have been the result of a medieval-period cross between Pinot Noir and Gouais Blanc that took place in Croatia. The Pinot name dates to the 14th century and might have been present as early as the Roman Empire. And Syrah/Shiraz, despite its name suggesting an Eastern origination, arose from French vineyards; as did Cabernet Sauvignon. Sources Bouby, Laurent, et al. Bioarchaeological Insights into the Process of Domestication of Grapevine (Vitis Vinifera L.) During Roman Times in Southern France. PLoS ONE 8.5 (2013): e63195. Print.Gismondi, Angelo, et al. Grapevine Carpological Remains Revealed the Existence of a Neolithic Domesticated Vitis Vinifera L. Specimen Containing Ancient DNA Partially Preserved in Modern Ecotypes. Journal of Archaeological Science 69.Supplement C (2016): 75-84. Print.Jiang, Hong-En, et al. Archaeobotanical Evidence of Plant Utilization in the Ancient Turpan of Xinjiang, China: A Case Study at the Shengjindian Cemetery. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 24.1 (2015): 165-77. Print.McGovern, Patrick E., et al. Beginnings of Viniculture in France. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110.25 (2013): 10147-52. Print.Orrà ¹, Martino, et al. Morphological Characterisation of Vitis Vinifera L. Seeds by Image Analysis and Comparison with Archaeological Remains . Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22.3 (2013): 231-42. Print.Pagnoux, Clà ©mence, et al. Inferring the Agrobiodiversity of Vitis Vinifera L. (Grapevine) in Ancient Greece by Comparative Shape Analysis of Archaeological and Modern Seeds. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 24.1 (2015): 75-84. Print.Ucchesu, Mariano, et al. Predictive Method for Correct Identification of Archaeological Charred Grape Seeds: Support for Advances in Knowledge of Grape Domestication Process. PLOS ONE 11.2 (2016): e0149814. Print.Ucchesu, Mariano, et al. Earliest Evidence of a Primitive Cultivar of Vitis Vinifera L. During the Bronze Age in Sardinia (Italy). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 24.5 (2015): 587-600. Print.Wales, Nathan, et al. The Limits and Potential of Paleogenomic Techniques for Reconstructing Grapevine Domestication. Journal of Archaeological Science 72.Supplement C (2016): 57-70. Print.Zhou, Yongfeng, et al. Evolutionary Genomics of Grape (Vitis Vinifera Ssp. Vinifera) Domestic ation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114.44 (2017): 11715-20. Print.

Synthesis Essay Winston Churchill - 1226 Words

Synthesis Essay – Winston Churchill SMSgt Brian J. Sands Air Force Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy September 10, 2014 Instructor: MSgt Travis Pyle Winston Churchill Winston Churchill was an influential leader and politician in the government of the Britain from the turn of the 20th century until his death in 1965. He was Prime Minister twice and led his country through the darkest corridors of war in a fight for its very existence. Throughout his tenure he displayed uncommon vision and showed that he was a man of ethical action, as I will demonstrate. We will examine just a few points of his uncanny vision, highlight some of his ethical actions, and then connect these actions via Course 14 principals to events of personal relevance. Visionary Leader Winston Churchill was a leader with an unmatched vision for the future of his country. The 1930’s found Europe in a post war depression and Churchill foresaw the impending aggression from Germany. Throughout this decade he would often declare the increasing numbers of Germany’s growing weaponry and planes (Humes, 2012). As his party was out of power he was relegated to the back bench of the House of Commons. At the time, his predictions of a belligerent Germany were unwelcome to the ears of a war weary and economically depressed populace. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with Hitler in 1938 to secure peace which resulted in the German occupation of part of Czechoslovakia, and caused Churchill to say â€Å"This isShow MoreRelatedA Marxist Approach Of Orwell s 1984 Essay7236 Words   |  29 Pagesaround them. For example, England in the mid-20th century was deep in modernization. They had many advances in technology, and the figure leading the charge to advan cement was Winston Churchill. Yet, once the Great Wars occurred, Churchill had to lock down on power and place restrictions on many basic necessities. 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Influencing and Decision Making for Elders Limited- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theInfluencing and Decision Making for Elders Limited. Answer: Introduction Decision-making is a vital part of planning process. In all management functions, decision-making and problem solving plays a very significant role. While running a business or working in an organization, making right decisions may lead to success, whereas, wrong decisions can result to failure. There are wide ranges of decision-making tools and techniques, decision-making styles and one need to be conscious about what type of decision-making process and techniques to consider. Discussed below four (4) case study of an area of indecision that are recently occurring. Sko-Die is a manufacturing company where the two generations namely, Gen X and Gen Y are clashing in the workplace. The management team are facing problem, as they are unable to take any proper decisions. Since, the Gen Y employees have been in the company for a short amount of time, they have a very little loyalty or reason to stay in the workplace. Elders Limited is a food and beverage company, which with the rise of the cost of materials and wages, profits proves to be low. Due to the unfortunate situation, the company needs to let some employees go. Therefore, the company needs to hold a meeting because none is on the list. Here company faces problem as they lack to take any decision regarding how many workers to sustain in the workforce for reducing the cost of wages. Boral Limited is a construction company and has a supervisor of a five person work group. The team manager has approved the purchase of one new computer for the group. The computer will go to one of the five employees. An individuals capability to work may highly vary, but in a group the capability of all the group members leads to the groups success. So, in this case the company faces priority based problem to judge which employee to give the computer, when and on what basis. Mr Paul is a supervisor in B9 Region. He supervises 8 employees who are Field inspectors and supporting staffs. The Field inspectors travel within the region to survey and other state occupied buildings for compliance with state policies and guidelines for risk management. The risk mananegment policies and guidelines are a bit complex, so there is a need for the Field inspector to be skilled at interpretating the policies and understanding on how the policies and guidelines apply in a wide variety of risk management senario found in state occupied buildings[1]. Most of the performance problems began when the state policies and guidelines were overhauled. From the above four cases, B9 Region case is taken into consideration. Given below the methods relating to the tools, techniques and skills used in decision making. Decision making tools and techniques There are different decision-making tools and techniques, among which some are implemented in the B9 Region with the help of Mr. Paul, are as follows: Decision matrix A decision matrix is used to evaluate all decisional options. While using a matrix, one can create a table with all the options in the first column and factors relating it in the first row. Then one needs to score each option with the respective weigh of factors. At last, the final score is tallied to find out the best option. In this decision matrix made in B9 Region T-Chart is used to weigh the plus and minus of the options[2]. While making a decision, all the plus signs and minus signs are taken into consideration. Pareto analysis It is a technique used for finding large number of decisions in B9 Region. It helps in prioritizing which one should be done first based on its decisions, which are having greatest impact. Here cost benefit technique is used in weighing the fiscal ramifications of each possible alternative and at last coming to the final decision and makes the most meaningful sense in respect to economic perspective[3]. Decision making Styles In B9 Region organization, the decision-making is crucial and important. If I take any wrong decision, then its impact seem to be enormous and critical. So, I have to think repeatedly before taking a solid and concrete decision[4]. In the B9 Region, I have implemented three (3) decision-making styles, they are rational, intuitive and spontaneous than the dependent and avoidant decisional styles: Rational Rational decision-making style normally prefers a structured and reasonable approach. Before making such type of decisions, I need to have all relevant information and then only i can come out with a specific decision. It also helps in evaluating the pros and cons of each decision. This decision making style is applied in context surroundings big risks which includes big amounts of money. Intuitive I in B9 region case, with intuitive decision-making style seems to be confident and prefer to take decisions listening to my inner voice. Spontaneous Spontaneous decision-making style is based on the impulsive decision making style, which is oftenly taking by the decision maker in B9 region. Here the Field inspector travels to other state without the knowledge of others. Group decision making Group decision making is a process where the multiple individuals act cooperatively, analyze problems or situations, evaluate the alternative course of actions and finally select the solution or alternatives of the solution. The number of people in a group decision making varies from the range of two to seven[5]. Benefits of Group Decision Making Group decision making is advantageous of its group diverse strengths and expertise. By combining the unique qualities of each individual group member, the group as a whole can generate greater number of alternatives, which proves to be of higher quality than the individual[6]. Generating higher quality of solution becomes sure that the group will definitely reach in providing superior problem solution than the individual. Weaknesses of Group Decision-making Groups prove to be slower in taking any decisions than the individuals, so it becomes difficult to implement those decisions in situations where urgent decisions are required. Group polarization seems to be one of the disadvantages of the group decision-making process. It is the tendency of the group to congregate on facing more extreme solutions to a problem[7]. Compare, contrast and critically evaluate sources of data for decision-making in respect to B9 Region context The data driven decisions prove to be better decisions in the business sector as it helps in understanding the decision more effectively. Firstly, the volume of data manifested each day is increasing day by day. Secondly, the speed of data creation is becoming more decisive in nature. Thirdly, the variety sources of data are gained through messages, updates and through images of social network[8]. This helps to reduce the complexities. Two factors are essential for managing a big data, they are: Firstly, clear strategy should be build based on the implementation of data and analytics. Secondly, organize the best and right technological architecture. Conclusion Decision-making and problem solving plays a vital role for the successful growth in the competition market. Hence, we conclude that group decision-making proves to be more important and significant than the individual decision-making and discussed above with the help of a case study. References Cui Z, 'Decision Making In Cross-Functional Teams: The Role Of Decision Power*' [2015] Decision Sciences Huysmans J and others, 'An Empirical Evaluation Of The Comprehensibility Of Decision Table, Tree And Rule Based Predictive Models' (2011) 51 Decision Support Systems Marshall L and De la Harpe R, 'Decision Making In The Context Of Business Intelligence And Data Quality' (2009) 11 S Afr j inf manag Nooraie M, 'Decision's Familiarity And Strategic Decision-Making Process Output: The Mediating Impact Of Rationality Of The Decision-Making Process' (2011) 4 International Journal of Applied Decision Sciences Radovanovic B, 'Individual Decision Making, Group Decision Making And Deliberation' (2012) 23 Filoz drus Scala N and others, 'Group Decision Making With Dispersion In The Analytic Hierarchy Process' [2015] Group Decision and Negotiation Scollnik D, 'A Pareto Scale-Inflated Outlier Model And Its Bayesian Analysis' (2013) 2015 Scandinavian Actuarial Journal Todeschini R, Grisoni F and Nembri S, 'Weighted PowerWeakness Ratio For Multi-Criteria Decision Making' (2015) 146 Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems Vriens D and Achterbergh J, 'Tools For Supporting Responsible Decision-Making?' (2013) 32 Syst. Res

The Parthenon of Greece Essay Example For Students

The Parthenon of Greece Essay The Greeks had an eager individualistic strain that led them to high levels of creative thinking in art, science, and literature. They were by nature sensitive to beauty and made its creation and enjoyment an important and necessary part of their lives. The Parthenon is a beautiful monument noted for its perfect simplicity of design and the harmony of its proportions. 1 From the architecture, to the sculpture, to the history of this great monument the Parthenon remains a masterpiece. The Parthenon is an ancient Greek temple dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin), on the Acropolis in Athens. 2 Most Greek cities had an acropolis (meaning high city in Greek). The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. 3 The Parthenon architecture is of the Doric order. It is the earliest and simplest of the Greek architectural orders. The Parthenons columns give an impression of graceful solidity and power. We will write a custom essay on The Parthenon of Greece specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now It was built from 447 to 432 BC, under the leadership of Pericles. The Parthenon was a rectangle marble temple measuring about 102 by 230 feet. It had 17 columns along each of its sides and 8 columns on each end. 4 The distances between the columns of the Parthenon vary mathematically so that when viewed from a distance, the columns reflected optical distortions. For example, a column that was perfectly straight would look like it was leaning outward. In order to compensate for this distortion, the builders inclined the columns inward just slightly. There were four types of sculptures featured in the Parthenon. They were the statue of Athena, the Ionic frieze, the Doric metopes, and the pediments. Except for the gold and ivory statue of Athena, all of the other sculptures were painted with bright colors. When the Greek temple builders placed a sloped roof over the entablature it left a triangular space at each end of the building. This empty space needed decoration so the pediment was created. The East Pediment over the front entrance depicts the birth of Athena, with a number of gods and goddesses on either side. The battle between Athena and Poseidon, the god of the sea, is located on the West Pediment. 5 The metopes were square panels carved in relief that showed battles between mythological figures. Originally there were 92 metopes, 32 on each side and 14 on each end. The Ionic frieze decorated the outer perimeter of the naos walls and was around 325 feet long and three-feet three inches in height. It represented the festival of Athena and portrayed young men and women, musicians, priests, and sacrificial animals in ceremonial procession to make an offering to Athena. The ivory and gold statue of Athena was located at the rear of the central chamber and was approximately 33 feet tall. The helmeted goddess stood resting one hand on a shield and holding a winged statue of Victory in the other. 6 A war with the Persians that ended in 479 BC destroyed the buildings and monuments on the Acropolis. A program was put into place by the Athens leader Pericles to beautify Athens and demonstrate its cultural importance. His plan was to rebuild the Acropolis with the showpiece being the Parthenon. Construction of the Parthenon began in 447 BC, and the dedication of the temple took place in 438 BC with the installation of the statue of Athena. The Parthenon was converted to a Christian church in AD 426 and dedicated to Hagla Sophia. Later, in 622, it was rededicated to the Virgin Mary. In order to accommodate the worshippers in the church a bell tower went up in one corner and an altar was placed at the end of the building. In 1687 a Venetian general laid siege to Athens and the Parthenon suffered extensive damage. 7 In Closing, the Parthenon is a beautiful structure. .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 , .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .postImageUrl , .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 , .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:hover , .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:visited , .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:active { border:0!important; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:active , .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14 .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue82089d14246ea1e146aa469385cdd14:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Blackness EssayThe sculptures have to be some of the greatest works of Greek art. From the decorative frieze that wrapped around the outer walls of the temple, the metope panels depicting figures in combat, to the East Pediment portraying the birth of Athena and the West Pediment showing the battle between Athena and Poseidon how vividly alive they must have seemed. Its unfortunate that there is not much left of this beautiful structure. What a sight it must have been to see the intricate detail that went into creating such a beautiful structure.